Prevention & School Safety

School Shooters: The Warning Signs [6 pp, 509 Kb]

This article was published in the winter–spring 2012 edition of Forensic Digest, and is reprinted with permission.

Ten Lessons Learned from School Shootings and Foiled Attacks [5 pp, 488 Kb]

This is an excerpt from Chapter 8, “What Can Be Done to Prevent School Shootings,” in Why Kids Kill: Inside the Minds of School Shooters.

A Guide to Insider References Used by School Shooters and Other Attackers [7 pp, 455 Kb]

This document lists nicknames, usernames, quotations, and other items that may be used by potential attackers to refer to previous killers or incidents of violence. Knowing these references is important to anyone conducting threat assessments. For examples of cases in which shooters used such insider references prior to their attacks, see the companion document “Reading Between the Lines: Recognizing Insider References to School Shootings.”

Reading Between the Lines: Recognizing Insider References to School Shootings [3 pp, 430 Kb]

School shooters sometimes quote previous shooters in their online posts and homework assignments. This article, originally published in Campus Safety magazine, presents examples of such insider references, which may point to the intention to commit a shooting. For a glossary of insider references, see the companion document “A Guide to Insider References Used by School Shooters and Other Attackers.”

On-Scene Behavior of School Shooters: The Resolution of Rampage Attacks [4 pp, 484 Kb]

This document presents data on how 48 school shootings ended, whether with police intervention, civilian intervention, or perpetrator suicide. It also looks at other aspects of school shootings that can inform first responders on what they might encounter when they arrive at the scene.

A Comparative Analysis of Threat and Risk Assessment Measures [41 pp, 432 Kb]

This article is by Dr. Brian Van Brunt and was originially published in the Journal of Campus Behavioral Intervention, (2013), 111–151. It is reprinted with permission of the National Behavioral Intervention Team Association (NaBITA). The article compares three potential perpetrators of violence across four assessment tools: the Workplace Assessment of Violence Risk (WAVR-21), the Structured Interview of Violence Risk Assessment (SIVRA-35), the NaBITA Threat Assessment Tool, and History, Clinical, Risk (HCR-20) version 3. 

Violence Risk Assessment of the Written Word [14 pp, 443 Kb]

The VRAW2 is a newly created instrument by Brian Van Brunt, Ed.D., used to assess e-mails, letters, or creative writing that contain direct threats or violent themes of concern. The article reviews the five factors and corresponding sub-factors used to assess the potential for threat. Scoring considerations and case examples are provided to illustrate how to score each of the sub-factors informing the overall factors. The VRAW2 is then discussed in context of the NaBITA Threat Assessment Tool and the Structured Interview for Violence Risk Assessment (SIVRA-35). This article originally appeared in the Journal of Campus Behavioral Intervention, 3 (2015), 12-25. It is reprinted with permission from the National Behavioral Intervention Team Association (NaBITA).

School Shooters on College Campuses [14 pp, 705 Kb]

This article was originally published in the Journal of Campus Behavioral Intervention, 1 (2013), 6-39. It is reprinted here with permission of the National Behavioral Intervention Team Association (NaBITA).

School Threat Assessments: Psychological and Behavioral Considerations [11 pp, 394 Kb]

This article originally appeared in the Journal of Health Service Psychology, 2017 (spring), vol. 43, pp. 32–40. It is posted here with permission.

Threat Assessment in Schools [99 pp, 774 Kb]

This document from 2002 is the result of collaboration between the Secret Service and the U.S. Department of Education.

Prior Knowledge of Potential School-Based Violence [15 pp, 1.4 Mb]

This is a collaboration between the Secret Service and the U.S. Department of Education. The focus of this 2008 study was investigating students with prior knowledge of impending school attacks.

The School Shooter: A Threat Assessment Perspective [52 pp, 193 Kb]

This is the FBI report on school shootings (primary author, Dr. Mary Ellen O'Toole).

Mass Attacks in Public Spaces 2019 [36 pp, 3.29 Mb]

This report was prepared by the National Threat Assessment Center of the United States Secret Service.

The Final Report and Findings of the Safe School Initiative [63 pp, 569 Kb]

This document from 2002 is the result of collaboration between the Secret Service and the U.S. Department of Education.

Workplace Violence: Issues in Response [80 pp, 6.4 Mb]

This is a report by the FBI. Though it is not focused on school shootings, it provides important guidelines on do’s and don’t’s for implementing threat assessment programs that are also relevant to educational environments. Though school shootings most commonly are committed by current or recent students, several perpetrators have been university employees (e.g., Edward Allaway, Valery Fabrikant, and Amy Bishop). Finally, for anyone working in a school setting, school shootings constitute a form of workplace violence.

Campus Threat Assessment Case Studies [92 pp, 3.5 Mb]

This report was produced by the Community Oriented Policing Services (COPS) of the U.S. Department of Justice. It contains eight case studies as a guide to conducting campus threat assessments. 

School Safety and Security (Massachusetts) [36 pp, 1.2 Mb]

This is the Massachusetts Task Force Report on School Safety and Security.

Pennsylvania State Police School Safety Report [28 pp, 1.2 Mb]

This report focuses on physical security and crisis response.

Campus Attacks: Targeted Violence Affecting Institutions of Higher Education [40 pp, 681 Kb]

This report was published in 2010 as a joint effort from the Secret Service, Department of Education, and FBI.

Threat Assessment in the Campus Setting [28 pp, 615 Kb]

This white paper was created by the National Behavioral Intervention Team Association (NaBITA) in 2014. It is included here with permission. 

A Study of Active Shooter Incidents in the United States Between 2000 and 2013 [47 pp, 2 Mb]

This analysis was published by the FBI.

Active Shooter Incidents in the United States in 2014 and 2015 [11 pp, 218 Kb]

This is an addendum to the FBI’s study of active shooter incidents from 2000 to 2013. 

A Study of the Pre-Attack Behaviors of Active Shooters in the United States Between 2000 and 2013 [30 pp, 3.03 Mb]

This is the FBI’s follow-up report to its previous analysis of active shooter incidents between 2000 and 2013.

Firearm Violence, 1993–2011 [28 pp, 1.39 Mb]

This report from the U.S. Department of Justice is not about violence prevention, but it is included here because it presents statistics on firearm violence. Despite the common perception that gun violence is an ever-increasing phenomenon, the report notes that firearm-related homicides decreased 39% from 1993 to 2011. In addition, it states that school-related homicides of youth between the ages of 5 and 18 decreased from an average of 29 per year in the 1990s to an average of 20 in the first decade of this century (a decline of 31%).

Recommended Practices for Virginia College Threat Assessment [92 pp, 2.31 Mb]

This document was written by Dewey Cornell, Ph.D., one of the leading experts on school safety and director of the Virginia Youth Violence Project. 

Indicators of School Crime and Safety: 2013 [208 pp, 4.6 Mb]

This is a report from the U.S. Department of Education that presents data on multiple facets of school safety.

The Final Report of the Sandy Hook Advisory Commission [277 pp, 2 Mb]

This report presents recommendations on school safety in three domains: Safe School Design and Operation; Law Enforcement, Public Safety, and Emergency Response; and Mental Health/Mental Wellness.

Active Shooter: Recommendations and Analysis for Risk Mitigation [182 pp, 2.86 Mb]

This report was produced by the New York City Police Department. Besides the recommendations, the document contains a long listing of active shooter incidents, dividing them into several categories based on the location of the attacks: office buildings, open commercial, factories and warehouses, schools, and other.

Mass Attacks in Public Spaces: 2016-2020 [70 pp, 3.98 Mb]

This is a report by the National Threat Assessment Center of the United States Secret Service. 

Strategic Approaches to Preventing Multiple Casualty Violence [51 pp, 4.64 Mb]

This report by the United States Department of Justice was released in 2013.

The Police Response to Active Shooter Incidents [60 pp, 7.44 Mb]

This report was released in 2014 by the Police Executive Research Forum.

Balancing Student Privacy and School Safety: A Guide to the Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act for Elementary and Secondary Schools [2 pp, 306 Kb]

Understanding the Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA) is essential for threat assessment. This document presents key points relating to primary and secondary educational settings. 

Balancing Student Privacy and School Safety: A Guide to the Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act for Colleges and Universities [2 pp, 273 Kb]

Understanding the Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA) is essential for threat assessment. This document addresses issues relating to FERPA in colleges and universities.

Recommendations for Reporting on Mass Shootings [2 pp, 459 Kb]

This document contains media guidelines for how to appropriately report on mass shootings so as to minimize the likelihood of copycat attacks, to respect the victims and their families, and to address other relevant issues. This project was led by SAVE (Suicide Awareness Voices of Education) and included national and international experts from the American Foundation for Suicide Prevention (AFSP), the CDC; Columbia University; International Association for Suicide Prevention (IASP) Media Task Force; JED; NAMI­-NH; SPRC; and multiple media industry experts. It is posted here with permission from SAVE.org.

USC Institutional Review [4 pp, 211 Kb]

This brief review was done in the wake of Sunghee Kwon’s attack in 2015 to evaluate the university’s response and recommend improvements.

Campus Safety at Oregon Post-Secondary Education Institutions [39 pp, 769 Kb]

This report was compiled in the wake of the Umpqua Community College attack.

Making Prevention a Reality: Identifying, Assessing, and Managing the Threat of Targeted Attacks [130 pp, 2.81 Mb]

This report was created by the FBI through their Behavioral Analysis Unit—National Center for the Analysis of Violent Crime.

Don’t Name Them, Don’t Show Them, But Report Everything Else: A Pragmatic Proposal for Denying Mass Killers the Attention They Seek and Deterring Future Offenders [11 pp, 509 Kb]

This is an article by Adam Lankford and Eric Madfis containing recommendations for media coverage of mass shootings. The article first appeared in American Behavioral Scientist. It is posted here with the authors’ permission. 

Making Schools Safer: A Quick Reference Guide [2 pp, 402 Kb]

This was published by the U.S. Secret Service in 2018.

Enhancing School Safety Using a Threat Assessment Model [32 pp, 1.42 Mb]

This was published by the U.S. Secret Service in 2018.

Safeguarding Our Children: An Action Guide [68 pp, 535 Kb]

This publication was the result of collaboration among numerous national and governmental organizations. It was published by the U.S. Departments of Education and Justice, American Institutes for Research.

School Safety: Lessons Learned [60 pp, 3.63 Mb]

This document was created by the United States Attorney’s Office, District of Minnesota, along with the Minnesota Department of Education and the Minnesota Department of Public Safety. It covers multiple aspects of school safety, including preventing school shootings, improving school climate, addressing bullying, increasing community engagement, and many other issues.  

Colorado School Safety Guide [150 pp, 1.21 Mb]

This was published by Colorado’s Attorney General in 2018. 

Mass Victimization: Promising Avenues for Prevention [58 pp, 624 Kb]

This report was published by the FBI in 2015. 

A Preliminary Report on the Police Foundation’s Averted School Violence Database [40 pp, 7.5 Mb]

This report, written by Jeffrey A. Daniels, presents the findings from the Averted School Violence database created by Police Foundation. The findings are drawn from 51 incidents of averted school violence since the attack at Columbine High School (20 April 1999). Recommendations and lessons learned regarding school safety are also included.

A Comparison of Averted and Completed School Attacks from the Police Foundation Averted School Violence Database [42 pp, 7.74 Mb]

This report, written by Peter Langman and Frank Straub, presents findings on 51 incidents of school violence that have occurred since the attack at Columbine High School and compares the findings to 51 incidents of averted school violence. Recommendations and lessons learned regarding school safety are also included.

Colorado School Safety Resource Center: Essentials of Threat Assessment [27 pp, 569 Kb]

This document was originally created by the Colorado School Safety Resource Center in 2009, but has been updated as of 2018.

Regional Public Safety Communications in Broward County [59 pp, 1.92 Mb]

The subtitle of this document is “A National Police Foundation Interim Review of the Impact of Communication Systems and Processes on the Response to the February 14, 2018 Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School Shooting.”

Recovering and Moving Forward: Lessons Learned and Recommendations Following the Shooting at Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School [99 pp, 1.65 Mb]

This report was produced by Police Foundation and released in August, 2019.

School Security and Standards Task Force (Illinois) [283 pp, 4.45 Mb]

This is a report to the Illinois State Board of Education in 2016.

Protecting America’s Schools: A U.S. Secret Service Analysis of Targeted School Violence [70 pp, 8.95 Mb]

This report was created by the National Threat Assessment Center of the United States Secret Service. It presents data on school attacks from 2008 through 2017, along with recommendations on threat assessment as a violence prevention strategy. 

Averting Targeted School Violence [64 pp, 7.01 Mb]

This report was released in 2021 by the National Threat Assessment Center of the United States Secret Service.

Improving School Safety Through Bystander Reporting: A Toolkit for Strengthening K–12 Reporting Programs [38 pp, 2.16 Mb]

This report was produced by the Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency (CISA) and the U.S. Secret Service. It was released in 2023.